Yves right here. Israel’s barbaric conduct of its wars, the deteriorating state of affairs in Ukraine, and the hard-fought US presidential election have been dominating the information. That makes it approach too straightforward for legitimately essential tales to go by the wayside, significantly ones involving scams. Blue hydrogen is likely one of the far too many supposed local weather straightforward fixes which are taken up by promoters and offered as far more practical than they’re (understand that overstated affect justifies overspending).
However blue hydrogen, as DeSmog explains beneath, seems way more cynical than that. A pet initiative of fossil gas corporations, its backers are attempting to say it ought to get “low carbon” subsidies. DeSmog’s evaluation reveals that, primarily based on the efficiency of present initiatives, it shouldn’t qualify.
By Aline Nippert. Initially revealed at DeSmogBlog. That is the fourth a part of a DeSmog sequence on carbon seize and was developed with the help of Journalismfund Europe and revealed in partnership with Le Monde
Billed by the fossil gas business as a local weather resolution, dozens of deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives in Europe may eat extra pure gasoline annually than France, and produce emissions on a par with Denmark, a DeSmog evaluation has discovered.
The findings elevate new questions over blue hydrogen’s local weather affect as EU officers deliberate over technical requirements that might permit the expertise to depend as “low-carbon” — and thus qualify for billions of euros in subsidies.
The time period blue hydrogen is used to explain hydrogen constituted of pure gasoline, the place carbon seize and storage(CCS) expertise is deployed to entice a lot of the massive quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated throughout the manufacturing course of, then bury it underground.
Hydrogen emits no CO2 on the level of use. If produced cleanly, the molecule is theoretically able to decarbonising numerous sectors, together with chemical compounds and petrochemicals, metal, cement, energy, street transport and doubtlessly aviation.
Though Europe has but to supply any blue hydrogen at scale, Shell, BP, Equinor, TotalEnergies, Eni, and ExxonMobil are amongst dozens of oil and gasoline corporations selling the expertise as a approach of assembly local weather targets.
Nevertheless, business has but to offer the type of complete knowledge wanted to estimate how far any attainable local weather advantages from switching to blue hydrogen produced by the deliberate initiatives might offset the residual CO2 emissions and methane leaks related to making it.
To start to fill this hole, DeSmog teamed up with Christophe Coutanceau, a professor on the Institute of Chemistry of Poitiers: Supplies and Pure Assets, and co-lead of a hydrogen working group on the French Nationwide Centre for Scientific Analysis, recognized by its French acronym CNRS. [Details of the methodology used can be found at the end of this story].
By reviewing intensive business stories and technical knowledge on 46 proposed blue hydrogen initiatives within the EU, UK and Norway listed by the Paris-based Worldwide Vitality Company (IEA), DeSmog discovered that 27 contain constructing new hydrogen manufacturing amenities. One other 15 envisage retrofitting present hydrogen crops with carbon seize, whereas the standing of 4 remained undetermined. Greater than a 3rd of the full quantity of hydrogen gasoline produced by these 46 initiatives can be used for oil refining — the principle use of hydrogen at the moment, in response to a DeSmog tally of obtainable knowledge.
In collaboration with Coutanceau, DeSmog estimated that these 27 new blue hydrogen amenities may eat 48 billion cubic metres (bcm) of pure gasoline annually — a few tenth of the full consumption within the EU, UK and Norway in 2022 (499 bcm), and greater than the annual quantity of gasoline burned in France (38 bcm).
DeSmog’s evaluation estimated the full annual emissions related to the 46 deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives at 38 million tonnes of CO2 equal (CO2e) — about as a lot as Denmark or Switzerland emitted in 2022 (42 million tonnes of CO2). Our calculations factored in methane leaks within the pure gasoline provide chain and the partial effectivity of carbon seize models.
An extra 33 million tonnes of CO2 may very well be launched whereas the crops are being constructed within the one-off course of used to fabricate the amine-based solvent utilized in the commonest kinds of seize models, the evaluation discovered.
“We ought to be very cautious with blue hydrogen. We must always not purchase right into a false sense of complacency that it’s a low-carbon gas,” mentioned Lorenzo Sani, energy analyst at monetary assume tank Carbon Tracker, who reviewed DeSmog’s methodology and findings. “A badly managed growth of blue hydrogen will improve carbon emissions whereas creating new gasoline demand that dangers extending vitality safety issues.”
The issues have been echoed by Paul Martin, a chemical engineer and decarbonisation guide at Spitfire Analysis, who additionally reviewed the findings.
“This evaluation confirms the truth that so-called ‘blue’ hydrogen is relatively ‘blackish blue’,” Martin mentioned. “Even technological improvements within the area of hydrogen manufacturing from fossil gasoline don’t change this.”
Coutanceau, the CNRS hydrogen skilled, underscored the large scale of the duty fossil gas corporations face in realising plans to sequester the captured CO2 in disused oilfields within the North Sea.
“Along with the tens of million tonnes of CO2 equal that blue hydrogen initiatives would launch yearly, what are we going to do with the captured CO2?” Coutanceau mentioned. “There’s discuss of underground storage in saline cavities, however to my information this infrastructure doesn’t but exist on an industrial scale.”
In April, staff started boring a gap below the seawall on the Port of Rotterdam, marking the beginning of development of the Porthos carbon seize and storage undertaking — which goals to begin sequestering CO2 captured at two deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives in a disused offshore gasoline area from 2026.
Equinor, Shell and TotalEnergies plan to retailer tens of millions of tonnes of CO2 below the North Sea of their Northern Lights three way partnership, which opened a storage facility close to Bergen final month. Equinor says the undertaking will initially retailer 1.5 million tonnes of CO2 a 12 months — with that capability already dedicated to ammonia, cement and bioenergy crops.
Lack of Knowledge
Hydrogen Europe, an business affiliation grouping tons of of corporations — starting from Shell and BP, to utilities and engineering corporations — dismissed issues over the potential emissions footprint of the deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives, saying substituting blue hydrogen for fossil fuels would have a internet local weather profit.
“You need me to confess that we’ve a variety of CO2 emissions due to blue [hydrogen]. That’s not true,” Jorgo Chatzimarkakis, Hydrogen Europe’s CEO, instructed DeSmog in an interview. “It’s important to have a look at the massive image: With blue hydrogen, there will likely be fewer CO2 emissions than should you used pure gasoline as your [source of fuel]. You criticize the truth that we’re decreasing emissions. I don’t perceive the logic.”
In keeping with the Hydrogen Council, a world commerce affiliation, producing one kilogram of blue hydrogen utilizing pure gasoline and a excessive stage of seize (90 to 98 p.c) would emit a most of three.9 kilograms of CO2 — 70 p.c lower than a traditional hydrogen plant.
Nevertheless, it’s troublesome to independently estimate the decarbonisation potential of the deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives with out entry to knowledge exhibiting how the gasoline will likely be used, and thus how far it would cut back demand for fossil fuels.
“For now, we don’t have sufficient knowledge,” Coutanceau mentioned. “To reach at a exact calculation of prevented emissions, we’d must know whether or not the hydrogen can be used as a feedstock in a producing course of, to supply warmth, or utilized in gas cells to supply electrical energy. It’s not the identical [decarbonisation] achieve.”
Hydrogen Europe declined to reply to DeSmog’s request for an estimate for the amount of CO2 emissions that may very well be saved by the 46 proposed blue hydrogen initiatives. The World CCS Institute, an oil and gasoline business physique, didn’t reply to a request for remark.
Thought to be probably the most authoritative fashions for decarbonising the vitality system, the IEA’s Internet Zero by 2050 Roadmap sees a rise in international blue hydrogen manufacturing capability to 18 million tonnes (Mt) by 2030 from the negligible quantities produced at the moment. However the 46 deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives in Europe alone would produce 10 million tonnes of blue hydrogen — or greater than half the worldwide whole wanted within the IEA situation, DeSmog discovered.
Solely a handful of the proposed initiatives have acquired a ultimate funding determination, that means there is no such thing as a assure they are going to all be constructed. However, local weather advocates say the discrepancy between the size of the proposed build-out, and the Internet Zero 2050 roadmap, raises questions over whether or not business is intent on utilizing blue hydrogen to protect demand for pure gasoline, at the same time as Europe transitions away from fossil fuels.
‘Make-or-Break Second’
Fossil gas corporations, utilities and industrial gasoline producers are vying for a share of a cumulative whole of $100 billion in state help for hydrogen initiatives that had been introduced by EU member states and different European international locations by 2023, in accordance to knowledge from BloombergNEF.
Some local weather teams are urging governments to again “inexperienced” hydrogen — the time period used for hydrogen produced in an emissions-free however energy-intensive course of powered by wind and photo voltaic. In distinction to blue hydrogen’s reliance on pure gasoline as a feedstock, inexperienced hydrogen is made utilizing giant portions of water.
The EU has arrange Hydrogen Financial institution to assist scale up the expertise, with the Renewable Vitality Directive stipulatingthat 42 p.c of hydrogen utilized in business should be produced solely from renewable vitality sources by 2030, and 60 p.c by 2035.
However environmental teams are involved that business lobbyists might persuade the European Fee to shift these obligations from inexperienced hydrogen to a extra loosely outlined “low-carbon” hydrogen — which would come with blue hydrogen initiatives. That might crowd out funding in inexperienced hydrogen, which is way costlier to supply.
“If choice relies solely on worth, since blue hydrogen will likely be cheaper than inexperienced hydrogen, blue hydrogen initiatives will [win out] and can make inexperienced hydrogen disappear,” Geert De Cock, electrical energy and vitality supervisor at Transport & Setting, a Brussels-based analysis and advocacy group, instructed DeSmog. “For my part, it is a frontal assault on inexperienced hydrogen.”
In April, Transport & Setting and different environmental teams, joined by wind and photo voltaic corporations, wrote an open letter urging the European Fee to undertake a “sturdy definition” for low-carbon hydrogen, with stringent situations hooked up to blue hydrogen manufacturing.
The Renewable Hydrogen Coalition, environmental tank Bellona, and the Environmental Protection Fund have been amongst signatories urging Commissioner for Vitality Kadri Simson and Fee Vice-President Maroš Šefčovič to make sure the brand new guidelines mirrored the whole thing of greenhouse gasoline emissions related to a selected blue hydrogen undertaking; set a minimal price of carbon seize; and set most charges for methane leakage.
The letter’s signatories additionally name for a assure that any blue hydrogen to qualify as “low-carbon”, “will solely be produced from present (not further) gasoline manufacturing capability”.
“If the principles are sufficiently strict, the brand new [blue hydrogen] initiatives won’t occur,” De Cock mentioned. “It’s actually make-or-break for the business.”
Betting on Blue
Right this moment, virtually all industrial hydrogen is of the “gray” selection, the place the CO2 emitted throughout the course of of creating it from pure gasoline is vented into the ambiance, accounting for about two p.c of worldwide CO2 emissions, in accordance to the IEA. About half of this hydrogen is utilized in oil refining, the place the gasoline is used to strip sulphur from refined merchandise, and make diesel and different oils.
Some local weather advocates suspect that the fossil gas business is backing blue hydrogen partly as a result of the ensuing demand for pure gasoline will serve to extend the helpful lifetime of present gasoline deposits, drilling rigs, pipelines and different infrastructure. That might cut back the chance that the EU’s objective to slash carbon emissions by 55 p.c by 2030 will saddle oil and gasoline corporations with billions of euros of stranded property.
Within the Netherlands, website of 12 of the 46 proposed blue hydrogen initiatives, U.S. industrial gases firm Air Merchandise and French rival Air Liquide have introduced plans to retrofit their present gray hydrogen crops within the Port of Rotterdam with carbon seize tools to supply blue hydrogen. “Hydrogen performs a crucial function within the vitality transition and in mitigating the results of local weather change,” Air Merchandise says on its web site.
The captured CO2 will likely be dealt with by Porthos, a three way partnership between state-owned corporations Energie Beheer Nederland, Gasunie, and the Port of Rotterdam Authority. The undertaking goals to retailer 2.5 million tonnes of CO2 captured yearly from numerous industries in depleted gasoline fields below the North Sea for 15 years, beginning in 2026.
Elsewhere within the Netherlands, within the maritime province of Zeeland, Air Liquide is constructing a brand new plant to produce blue hydrogen to Zeeland Refinery, a three way partnership between TotalEnergies and Russia’s Lukoil. Air Liquide can be collaborating within the Kairos@C undertaking within the Belgian port of Antwerp, which goals to seize greater than 14 million tonnes of CO2 over its first 10 years of operations, together with from two blue hydrogen crops.
“The Group has an entire portfolio of technological options and providers to help the decarbonisation of its clients world wide,” Air Liquide mentioned in its 2022 strategic plan.
American-German gasoline producer Linde, which is headquartered within the UK, additionally sees blue hydrogen as a development alternative. “Blue hydrogen is the subsequent step,” the corporate says on its net web page. “Grey and blue hydrogen are essential stepping stones on the trail to inexperienced hydrogen as they are going to permit for the required frameworks and infrastructures to be developed whereas inexperienced hydrogen manufacturing reaches the required scale.”
Oil Corporations Spy Alternatives
The monitor document of the fewer than 10 present industrial blue hydrogen crops in operation has been uneven. For instance, Shell’s Quest undertaking in Canada, able to producing 900 tonnes of hydrogen a day, captured 5 million tonnes of CO2 from 2015-2021 — however launched greater than 7.5 million tonnes of greenhouse gases throughout the identical interval, in response to a report primarily based on official knowledge collated by World Witness.
However, oil corporations are speaking up the advantages of blue hydrogen, with TotalEnergies, Eni, Shell and BP all characterising the gasoline as a clear gas that can be utilized to bridge the hole earlier than inexperienced hydrogen turns into extra economical.
In January final 12 months, Norway’s state-owned oil firm Equinor signed a memorandum of understanding with the German vitality supplier RWE to collectively develop blue hydrogen initiatives in Norway for export by way of pipeline to Germany. Equinor introduced final month that it had scrapped the plans, citing extreme prices and inadequate demand.
Within the UK, website of 14 of the 46 blue hydrogen initiatives on the drafting board, BP is creating a large-scale blue hydrogen plant, known as H2 Teesside. The undertaking goals to supply 160,000 tonnes of blue hydrogen a 12 months, with the builders pledging to seize two million tonnes of related CO2 emissions and bury them below the North Sea.
“The undertaking is already properly superior,” mentioned Sani, the ability analyst at Carbon Tracker, and creator of a June reporton blue hydrogen within the UK. “Though the ultimate funding determination has not but been taken, a number of agreements have already been concluded, and the development of a brand new [liquefied natural gas] terminal to produce the plant with fossil gasoline has been proposed.”
In the meantime, U.S. main ExxonMobil, which has numerous carbon seize pursuits within the Netherlands, Belgium and UK, describes blue hydrogen as “one of many few confirmed applied sciences that might ship vital reductions in CO2 emissions in high-emitting, hard-to-decarbonise sectors.”
Battle of Perceptions
Trade teams are eager to kick-start the deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives by portraying them as equal to their inexperienced hydrogen rivals — downplaying the variations within the emissions footprint of the applied sciences, and specializing in economics.
“It’s about decarbonisation, it’s not about color,” mentioned Chatzimarkakis, the Hydrogen Europe CEO, reiterating a place generally superior by business. “If we begin to criticize applied sciences that assist to decarbonise, to the vitality transition, we’re making a giant mistake. We should be ‘expertise numerous’. We have to have each expertise that permits for CO2 abatement to play its function.”
Underneath present EU guidelines, the utmost threshold of greenhouse gasoline emission for hydrogen to be thought of “low-carbon” is equal to that of inexperienced hydrogen: 3.38 kilograms of CO2e per kilogram of hydrogen. However whether or not or not a selected blue hydrogen facility meets that definition is dependent upon the methodology used to calculate its emissions.
In Might, the EU adopted a raft of new guidelines on gasoline and hydrogen below its Inexperienced Deal local weather framework — and tasked officers with creating a technique for figuring out which hydrogen initiatives depend as “low-carbon” inside a 12 months. The European Fee revealed a draft of the brand new guidelines on September 27, and opened a month-long public session.
The draft proposed that blue hydrogen initiatives ought to be subjected to a “full life-cycle evaluation” — that means that emissions estimates would come with elements equivalent to methane leakages throughout the manufacturing and transport of the pure gasoline, and stringent guidelines for assessing carbon seize charges.
However the satan is within the particulars, campaigners say.
In a response to the draft, Transport & Setting questioned the rigour of proposed measures to think about methane leakages, whereas Bellona famous a scarcity of measures to discourage the build-out of recent pure gasoline infrastructure.
Many extra questions stay unanswered.
The draft suggests that each one emissions related to the method of capturing CO2, then transporting the gasoline and injecting into undersea storage websites, will likely be taken into consideration when measuring the carbon footprint of a blue hydrogen undertaking. However the guidelines are silent on the query of whether or not the emissions related to the manufacturing of the amine-based solvent wanted to function the commonest carbon seize expertise must also be factored in.
It has additionally but to be decided the right way to account for doubtless leaks of hydrogen — which is taken into account an “oblique” greenhouse gasoline as a result of it causes chemical reactions that have an effect on concentrations of methane, ozone, and stratospheric water vapor, in addition to aerosols. Different questions embrace: How will the pure gasoline provide chain be licensed? And the way to make sure such certifications are correct? Wouldn’t it make extra sense to calculate the warming affect of the methane over a interval of 20 years (84 occasions larger than CO2), as advocated by environmental teams, or 100 years (28 occasions larger), as desired by business?
“European policymakers must set sturdy ensures for blue hydrogen initiatives, as they threat derailing internet zero methods if they’re developed with out addressing provide chain emissions,” mentioned Carbon Tracker’s Sani. “With out stringent regulatory frameworks, blue hydrogen may inadvertently turn out to be a setback in our struggle in opposition to local weather change.”
Variations within the methane leakage charges in numerous gas-producing areas additional complicate efforts to calculate blue hydrogen’s carbon footprint.
Norway’s gasoline business is claimed to restrict its leakage charges to beneath 1.0 p.c — lower than the estimated international common of 1.4 to 2.0 p.c. Nevertheless, with Norway’s gasoline manufacturing dedicated to present clients, it appears doubtless that future blue hydrogen initiatives will flip to suppliers equivalent to the USA, the place shale oil and gasoline reserves are being massively exploited, and estimates for the proportion of methane molecules escaping into the air may be 3.5 p.c, or larger. In some components of the U.S., such because the Permian Basin in New Mexico, leakage charges above 9.0 p.c have been recorded — that means that even inside a given nation, the place the gasoline comes from can have a big effect on the extent of local weather hurt.
Chatzimarkakis, of Hydrogen Europe, mentioned the origin of the pure gasoline was exterior the scope of his group’s remit. “I don’t know the place the gasoline will come from,” he mentioned. “We aren’t a gasoline foyer. That’s not our enterprise.”
Aline Nippert’s new e-book Hydrogen Mania: An Investigation into the Totem of Inexperienced Progress is revealed in French by Le passager clandestin.
Extra reporting by Michael Buchsbaum and Sharon Kelly
We started by inspecting the 51 proposed blue hydrogen initiatives within the EU, UK and Norway featured in a databasemaintained by the Worldwide Vitality Company (knowledge present as of October 2023). We excluded 4 initiatives within the UK which have been canceled (H2 Leeds Metropolis Gate undertaking; Cavendish Phases 1 and a pair of; and a undertaking on the Fawley refinery) and one in Norway (Aukra CCS). To simplify the calculations, we assumed that each one the initiatives used pure gasoline, generally used to make hydrogen in Europe. (Hydrogen will also be produced from oil and coal).
Venture by undertaking, we trawled specialised web sites, press releases, and technical stories to determine whether or not the builders have been planning to retrofit an present gray hydrogen plant to supply blue hydrogen — or construct a brand new blue hydrogen plant from scratch.
We discovered builders have been planning:
- 15 retrofits
- 27 new initiatives
- 4 undetermined
Estimating Pure Gasoline Consumption
We used the developer’s projections for a way a lot blue hydrogen a given plant would produce annually to estimate how a lot pure gasoline it might eat.
We used a typical assumption that it takes 3.6 kilograms of methane (the principle ingredient of pure gasoline) to supply 1.0 kilogram of hydrogen.
We then elevated the consequence by 22 p.c to replicate scientific estimates for the extra pure gasoline that might be required to energy the carbon seize course of. The entire quantity of pure gasoline required by the 46 crops (new crops and retrofits) was estimated at 67 billion cubic metres (bcm).
We concluded that the deliberate 27 new blue hydrogen amenities would eat a complete of 48 billion bcm of pure gasoline annually as a feedstock — a few tenth of the full consumption within the EU, UK and Norway in 2022 (499 bcm), and greater than the quantity of gasoline burned in France (38 bcm).
Estimating CO2 Emissions
To estimate the quantity of carbon dioxide equal (CO2e) related to the 46 deliberate blue hydrogen initiatives, we took numerous elements into consideration:
- The quantity of CO2 that might be emitted straight annually throughout the course of of manufacturing blue hydrogen, which is an element of the typical effectivity of the seize tools (both 60 p.c or 90 p.c relying on the kind of manufacturing course of): 18 million tonnes.
- The quantity of CO2e escaping into the ambiance annually because of methane leaks throughout the strategy of extracting, storing and transporting the pure gasoline. (Between 20 and 48 million tonnes of CO2e for leakage charges of 1.5 p.c and three.5 p.c respectively).
- The quantity of CO2 generated by the one-off manufacturing of the amine-based solvent utilized in most carbon seize models: (33 million tonnes). For the reason that solvent may be reused, the emissions related to solvent manufacturing will solely happen when the crops are being constructed.
In all, we estimated that constructing all 46 blue hydrogen initiatives would result in the minimal launch of 38 million tonnes of CO2e yearly — on a par with Denmark’s annual emissions of 42 million tonnes.
Here’s a extra detailed breakdown of every stage of our calculations:
Carbon Seize Effectivity
Underneath present blue hydrogen expertise, about 40 to 60 p.c of the CO2 molecules current in a given quantity of flue gasoline are captured, in response to the IEA. We due to this fact estimated a 60-percent seize price for the 15 retrofit initiatives.
For the 27 new-build initiatives, we assumed 90 p.c effectivity, consistent with business projections for subsequent technology seize applied sciences.
Multiplying the full quantity of CO2 launched throughout the manufacturing course of by the proportion seize price (90 p.c for brand new crops; 60 p.c for retrofits) results in 18 million tonnes of CO2 emissions.
Amine-based Solvent
The commonest carbon seize applied sciences depend on an ammonia-derived solvent to soak up CO2 molecules within the flue gases. We calculated the one-off emissions related to the required ammonia manufacturing at 33 million tonnes of CO2, utilizing the next assumptions:
- Producing 1.0 tonnes of ammonia generates 2.4 tonnes of CO2 .
- 250 kilograms of ammonia are required to supply 1.0 tonne of solvent
- 1.4 tonnes of solvent are wanted to seize 1.0 tonne of CO2
Notice: We excluded the 9 blue hydrogen initiatives involving Air Liquide, whose Crypocap carbon seize expertise doesn’t depend on an amine-based solvent.
Trade says it’s working to decarbonise ammonia manufacturing by utilizing blue hydrogen as a feedstock. Nevertheless, solely 4 of the 46 proposed blue hydrogen initiatives are designed to supply ammonia.
Methane Leakage
To transform the doubtless amount of methane leakage related to the initiatives into CO2e, we multiplied the amount of methane by an element generally known as World Warming Potential (GWP).
Methane exerts a larger warming impact within the brief time period, earlier than it step by step breaks down. Meaning its GWP is larger over a 20-year horizon (84 occasions larger than that of CO2) than a 100-year horizon (28 occasions larger).
Estimates for the quantity of methane that leaks throughout the extraction, transport and storage of the pure gasoline used to make blue hydrogen differ broadly, relying on the origin of the gasoline.
Conservatively, assuming a leakage price of 1.5 p.c (and a GWP of 28 over a 100-year horizon), the emissions as a result of methane leaks related to the pure gasoline used to feed the 46 initiatives equal 20 million tonnes of CO2e per 12 months.
Much less conservatively, assuming a 3.5 p.c leakage price (and a GWP of 28), this determine greater than doubles to 48 million tonnes of CO2e per 12 months.
Underneath numerous assumptions, the methane leakage related to the 46 blue hydrogen initiatives may vary from 20 million tonnes of CO2e (leakage price of 1.5 p.c and GWP of 28) to 117 million tonnes of CO2e (leakage price of three.5 p.c and GWP of 84).
Knowledgeable Assessment
DeSmog’s evaluation was carried out earlier this 12 months in collaboration with Christophe Coutanceau, a professor on the Institute of Chemistry of Poitiers: Supplies and Pure Assets, and co-lead of a hydrogen working group on the French Nationwide Centre for Scientific Analysis, recognized by its French acronym CNRS.
Energy analyst Lorenzo Sani, who has carried out related work on blue hydrogen initiatives within the UK for Carbon Tracker, and Paul Martin, chemical engineer and decarbonisation guide at Spitfire Analysis, reviewed our methodology and findings.
